This concludes Mrs. Frederika Pronk’s study, begun in the March issue, of women’s role in the early church. While the first installment highlights the important place they took in general, this deals particularly with their position with respect to special offices. Mrs. Pronk is the wife of Rev. Cornelis Pronk, pastor of the Grand Rapids Free Reformed Church. The editor of this department is Mrs. L. Vanden Heuvel, 207 Kansas Ave., NW, Orange City, Iowa 51041.

V. WOMEN’S ROLE IN THE CHURCH

In spite of the prominence of women in the history of the Early Church “the texts from the Fathers are without exception, quite univocal on the question of whether a woman may be a priest. A woman may not be a priest.”43 This is said by an author who contends that the Church Fathers were mistaken because the context of Paul’s exhortations regarding women supposedly indicate he is addressing heretical views. It seems hardly true when we examine the context of Scripture. For instance, the First Epistle to Timothy clearly indicates that Paul is setting forth rules for the church to follow when he says: “I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man.”44 That the Early Church understood this literally is quite evident from the writings of the Church Fathers. In fact, it was often because they were reacting against certain teachings and practices which contradicted the teachings and practices of the Catholic church that t hey set forth rules pertaining to the position of women in the church.

1. Deaconesses

Among the first official pronouncements of the church were those addressed to the regulation and function of deaconesses. Works of charity had been the special task of women since the Apostolic age. The sick, widows and orphans were the objects of their care. In imitation of the New Testament, widows were given special honor,45 as were virgins, women who followed Paul’s teaching regarding abstinence from marriage.46 When a special order of deaconesses emerged in the church is difficult to pinpoint. The earliest references which appear are by Pliny who calls two female slaves who were tortured, “deacons,” and by Lucian who gives an account of “widows” who ministered to the wants of Christians held in jail.⁴⁷ The ministry of these widows developed to a point where they are recognized as a separate order in certain third century documents called Church Orders. One of these, the “Didascalia,” gives reasons for their ministry: “For there are houses whither thou canst not send a deacon to the women, on account of the heathen, but mayest send a deaconess. Also because in many other matters the office of a woman deacon is required.”48 It appears that their work was required because of the strict separation of the sexes in ancient times and their “duties were not liturgical but consisted of helping at baptisms and visiting the sick.”49 The “Didascalia” forbids women to baptize and teach. “That a woman should baptize, or that one should be baptized by a woman . . . is a transgression of the commandment. . . . It is neither right nor necessary . . . that women should be teachers . . . . For you have not been appointed to this, O women.”50 There is no evidence these women were ordained, although a special service of consecration is indicated by a prayer of consecration for deaconesses in the Apostolic Constitution, and reference to their work is made by the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451).51 In the Western church the order disappears with the rise of the celibacy of the clergy and monasticism.52

2. Monasticism

The Christianization of society led to the decay of purity and discipline in the church. Asceticism was sought as the answer for moral perfection and purity. In the fourth century monasticism appears to provide a place for escape from the vanities of the world. Soon we find women enthusiastically involved. The solitary hermit life was unsuitable for females, but monasticism was practicable for women, and cloisters of nuns appear at the same time as those of men. “The sister of Pachomius followed his example and founded the first known Christian monastery.”53 These convents took many forms. There is a record of an order, patterned on the heretical Tecla, where “the deaconess Marthana ruled over the cells of both men and women ascetics who settled around the memorial of Saint Tecla of Seleucia in fourth century Asia Minor.”54 The development of monasticism leads into the Medieval period of church history, but it is certain that “besides marriage there was no other honorable career but that of a nun; it was a career that could be widened to include activities that a wife and mother could not touch.”55 Although it provided a sphere for women to spend their energies, the negative side of monasticism is that it led to a depreciation of women and domestic life. It “comes into conflict with love of kindred, and with the relation of parents to children.”56 And it was the role of women in their families which the church had emphasized.

     

3. Heresies

It was as wives and mothers that the Church Fathers had especially honored women. They reckoned women who usurped authority in the church as heretics and it was in the heretical movement which troubled the Early Church that women were taking on authority and leadership positions.

Gnosticism, a heresy which took many forms, stressed a secret “gnosis” or knowledge as supreme authority. “Sophia” or Wisdom was seen as a feminine virtue and the judge of the souls was portrayed as the Virgin of Lights attended by seven handmaids. Introduced into the church by Valentinus (AD 135–165), its emphasis on the female character of “gnosis” led his followers to entice beautiful and wealthy Christian women by seduction and the practice of magical arts.57 Epiphanes, a Gnostic teacher of Alexandria, advocated free love.58 On the opposite end was Marcion, the most radical of the Christian Gnostics, who was an ascetic and admitted married persons to baptism only on a vow of abstinence from all sexual intercourse.59

Another heresy, Montanism, which originated during the mid second century, placed women in positions of authority. With its emphasis on the endowment of the spirit as qualification for office and the stress on the universal priesthood of all believers it led women to engage in activities confined to the clergy. Appealing to the Biblical examples of Miriam, Deborah and the daughters of Philip, Montanus, the found er of this sect, was assisted by two prophetesses, Priscilla and Maximilla. These women left their husbands to proclaim the imminent return of Christ.60 It is known that in Spain Montanists recognized women as priests.61

About AD 200 a document attributed to the apostle Paul, Acts of Paul was circulating in the church. Tertullian mentions that these “writings falsely ascribed to Paul do defend the right of a woman to teach and baptize.”62 In these writings Paul is associated with the legendary origin of the martyr Tecla, who probably was an historical figure. A cult of Tecla developed and these followers used her as a precedent for advocating that women could teach in the church and baptize. Reacting to this, Tertullian writes: “The heretical women, how bold and indecorous they are! They dare to teach, to argue, to undertake exorcism, to promise healings, perhaps also even baptize.63

It was in the heretical movements that women figure d prominently as leading figures. In the Donatist controversy a woman, Lucilla, was prominent.64 The Monarchians were accused of perverting the Biblical sanctions of sex by Augustine. “Though you do not forbid sexual intercourse, you . . . forbid marriage in the proper sense.”65 Athanasius (died AD 373), the great defender of orthodoxy, accused the Arians of violating women and persecuting widows.66 Jerome (c. AD 340–419), commenting on women’s forwardness in the heretical movements, exclaims: “What do these wretched sin–laden hussies want! Marcion sent on to Rome before him a woman to infatuate the people for him. Apelles had Philomena as a companion for his teaching. Montanus, the proclaimer of the spirit of impurity, first used Prisca and Maximilla, noble and rich women, to seduce many communities by gold, and then disgraced them with heresy.”67 Yet Jerome was no woman–hater, for he honors them with a book on the life of women of his day, calling them “the wonder of ages” and mentions with respect Vidua, a woman famous for Hebrew scholarship and Paula who wrote a commentary on Ezekiel.68

VI. THE ECUMENICAL COUNCILS ON WOMAN’S ROLE

It is highly significant that the great ecumenical councils which formulated such important doctrines during the third and fourth century to settle theological disputes, also include “Canones” dealing with disciplinary statements concerning women’s role in the church. Conditions in the church apparently necessitated this action because of the prominent role of women in the life of the Early Church. This appears even in the fact that women tried to influence the decisions made in settling the theological disputes. The wife of Emperor Constantius, Eusebia, was a zealous Arian who tried to exert her influence by obtaining appointments for Arian bishops.69 The empress Eudokia and the emperor’s sister Pulcheria were enlisted by Cyril of Alexandria to oppose Nestorianism.70 Both Pelagius and Augustine corresponded with Demetrias, a leading nun, during the Pelagian controversy.71 Of such general interest were the theological controversies of the age, that “in Constantinople, during the Arian controversy, all classes, even . . . market women and runaway slaves took a lively part in the questions of Homousion and subordination.”72

In dealing with the role of women, Canon XIX of the Council of Nicea (AD 325) refers to deaconesses, and states that since they did not share in ordination, they were reckoned among the laity.73 The Council of Laodicea (AD 343–381) states in Canon XI, “Presbyteds, as they are called, or female presidents are not to be appointed in the Church.”74 A comment by Balsamon says: “For a woman to teach in a Catholic Church where a multitude of men is gathered together, and women of different opinions, is, in the highest degree, indecorous and pernicious.”75 The Council of Nicea (AD 394) convened to oppose Priscillianists (a Manichaean–like sect which counted many women followers). It pronounced that “in opposition to apostolic order and although it has been unknown until our time, certain people have suggested that women . . . are seen performing priestly service; obviously church order does not permit this, because it is indecent; and such an illegal ordination should be annulled.”

VII. CONCLUSION

The overwhelming evidence is that the Early Church, conforming to New Testament teaching, did not allow women to be ordained to any church office, even though they were involved in the work of the church to a high degree. In fact, it was predominantly in the heretical movements that women performed functions reserved for the ordained leaders of the church. It is highly significant that it was during the period when the Church made such momentous decisions in settling theological issues to define such cardinal doctrines as the Trinity and Christology, which are still accepted by orthodox Christianity, that women were prohibited from ordination.

Furthermore, it is noteworthy that laws applying to the family and marriage which protect the woman’s position, were enacted when Christianity’s influence had become strong enough to receive the official sanction of the state. The implication is that any government which does not legally protect the Christian values of the family and marriage, is opening the door for all kinds of perversions of woman’s role in marriage and the home.77

A further observation which can be made from a study of the history of women’s role in the Early Church is that lack of ordination was no hindrance for women to exercise their gifts in a proper and useful way. They exercised their gifts in the home, in the church and in society. They publicly witnessed to the transforming power of Christianity by choosing the supreme sacrifice rather than denying their faith. Christian women today are still called to be witnesses and sacrifice for their faith. They do so by holding to the sure word of prophecy, which says: “Be not conformed to this world: but be ye transformed by the renewing of your mind, that ye may prove what is that good, and acceptable, and perfect, will of God.”78

Finally, the history of the Early Church indicates that heresy has always been with us. The church will always be under doctrinal attack. This attack began with Eve in Paradise when she listened to: “Has God said?”79 Therefore it is not so strange that advocates for women’s ordination also question the clear teachings of God’s Word. Someone said it well: “Doctrinal distortion is a rationalization of our behavioral self-will.”80

43. Haye van der Meer, Women Priests in the Catholic Church? (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973, p. 46.

44. I Tim. 2:11f; cf 3:1–12; 1 Cor. 11:3–17; 1 Pet. 3:1–6; etc.

45. 1 Tim. 5:3–16.

46. 1 Cor. 7:25–38.

47. Philip Carrington. Ibid., VoL II, The Second Century, pp. 1;72–9.

48. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, p. 134.

49. Ibid., p. 144.

50. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, pp. 132–3.

51. Philip Schaff. Vol. III, pp. 259–60.

52. Ibid., pp. 261–2.

53. F. F. Bruce, The Spreading Flame, (Grand Rapids 3, Michigan: Wm . B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1958), p. 91;5.

54. Joan Morris, Against God and Nature, (London: Mowbrays, 1979), p. 13. See also reference to Footnote 63.

55. E. M White, Ibid., p. 326.

56. Philip Schaff. VoL III, p. 172.

57. bid., VoL II, pp. 473–482.

58. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Ibid., p. 105.

59. Philip Schaff. VoL II, pp. 483–7.

60. Ibid., pp. 418–26.

61. Haye van der M eer, p. 51.

62. Philip Carrington. Ibid., p. 187.

63. Haye van der Meer, p. 52.

64. Philip Schaff, VoL III, p. 361.

65. Nicem and Post-Nicem Fathers, First Series, VoL IV, p. 86.

66. Nicem and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, VoL IV. pp. 252–3.

67. Haye van der Me er, Ibid. , p. 76.

68. E. M. White, Ibid., p. 910.

69. Philip Schaff, Vol. III, p. 695.

70. Ibid.

71. Ibid., p. 791.

72. Ibid., p. 601. It is not true, that any Councils discussed whether women had a soul. This tradition seems to have arisen because it was questioned whether the word “homo” applied to women. It was pointed out that in classical Latin it applied to both sexes. (E. M White, Woman in World History, p. 307).

73. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. XIV. p. 40.

74. Ibid., p. 129.

75. Ibid., p. 190.

76. Haye van der Meer, Ibid., p. 99.

77. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment would endanger such legal protection by voiding any laws which do not equally apply to both sexes. leaving the family and woman’s role at the mercy of prevailing societal values.

78. Rom. 12:2.

79. Gen. 9:1.

80. Jeremy C. Jackson, No Other Foundation, (Westchester, Illinois: Cornerstone Books), 19801, p. 94.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bruce, F. F. The Spreading Flame. Grand Rapids 3, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1958.

Carrington, Philip. The Early Christian Church, Vol. 1: The First Christian Century; Vol. II: The Second Century. Cambridge: University Press, 1957.

Encyclopaedia Brittannica. 1977 ed. S.v. “Women, Status of,” pp. 906–916.

Gerlings, C. De Vrouw in het Oud-Christelijke Gemeenteleven. Amsterdam: A. H. Kruyt, n.d.

Hadad, Moses. Imperial Rome. Great Ages of Man Series. New York: Time Incorporated, 1965.

Jackson, Jeremy C. No Other Foundation. Westchester, Illinois: Cornerstone Books, 1980.

Morris, Joan. Against God and Nature. London: Mowbrays, 1973.

Roberts, Alexander and Donaldson, James, ed. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 10 vols. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Companx, 1867; reprinted. 1977.

Ryrie , Charles Caldwell. The Role of Women in the Church. Chicago: Moody Press, 1958.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Vols. I, II, III. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1910; reprinted. 1978.

—and Wace, Henry, ed. The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers. First Series, 14 vols. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1956.

—The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, 14 vols. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1952.

Smith, Page. Daughters ofthe Promised Land. Boston and Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1970.

Van der Meer, Haye. Women Priests in the Catholic Church? Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1973.

White, E. M. Woman in the World History. London SW1: Herbert Jenkins Limited, 1924.