In this 2 part series Mrs. Frederika Pronk gives us the interesting results of her study on the role of women in the early church of the first 5 centuries. Her study helps us by putting the currently contested “women’s issue” in historical perspective. The first part will deal with the prominence of women in the New Testament, the conditions of the society into which Christianity entered, the writings of early church fathers on the subject, and the influential roles of women in those early centuries of the churches’ history.

The second installment will deal more particularly with women’s role in the church and the way in which the ecumenical church councils dealt with the subject. Mrs. Pronk is the wife of Rev. Cornelis Pronk, pastor of the Free Reformed Church of Grand Rapids, Mich. She did this study in connection with a course at the Reformed Bible College. Readers who would be willing to contribute to this department are invited to write its editor, Mrs. L. Vanden Heuvel whose address is 207 Kansas Ave., N.W., Orange City, Iowa 51041.

Introduction

Ever since that most unhappy moment in the history of mankind when Eve forsook her role as a “help meet”1 for man and disregarded God’s Word by eating of the forbidden fruit, her position has been subject to various degrees of inferiority and degradation. Throughout the history of the world her position has ranged from enslavement and subjugation to tolerance and respect. Christ’s coming into the world and the spread of Christianity shed new light on her position, for New Testament Christianity placed males and females on an equal footing in Christ, by stating that in “Him there is neither male nor female.”2 How this equality in Christ was to be effected in the life of church and society has not always been unaminously agreed upon.

Conditions in the Early Church (the first five centuries, beginning with the Apostolic age) already forced the church to pay attention to the position of women. I believe that a study of the history of the Early Church and the writings of that period are most instructive in providing a historical perspective whereby to judge the woman’s rights movement of today. The role that women played in the early days of Christianity until it became firmly established in Europe can help provide direction to the church of today in deciding the course to pursue in the present controversy.

I. Prominence of Women

What immediately draws attention is the prominence of women in the records of the Early Church and the considerable attention given by the writings of the Church Fathers to define her proper role. This should not surprise us, since the New Testament records give evidence of the important part played by women in the founding of Christianity. Immediately after Christ’s ascension we read of women being gathered with the apostles and other disciples in the upper room in Jerusalem.3 After Pentecost the ingathering of converts consisted of “multitudes both of men and women,”4 and there is significant evidence that women played a prominent part in the progress of the Gospel.5 Because of its high ethical and moral standards Judaism had already prepared the way, for by the “dispersion of the Jews the seeds of the knowledge of the true God and the Messianic hope were sown in the field of the idolatrous world.”6 Many of these proselytes and God–fearers formed the nucleus of the first Christian churches.7

II. Conditions of the Society into which Christianity Entered

The low ebb of the culture into which the Gospel came with its saving power and high ethical standards is described by Paul in his Roman Epistle.8 In such a society “Christianity proposed a new order for a demoralized world, and it is clear that . . . it had a strong appeal to women who entered the new faith on the same basis as men.”9 The state was all–important and marriages were contracted to serve political ends. Especially in Greece women were the mere tools of men. Women received no education and bad no rights and were considered to be no better than chattels. Their lives were mainly passed in their domestic quarters and girls merely passed from the home of their father to that of their husbands. Monogamy was the rule both in Greek and Roman society, but this did not exclude illegitimate connections. Extra marital relationships were reserved for men only, however, and the wife had no legal or societal protection against the unfaithfulness of her husband.10 Stranger women called “hetaerae” provided males with extra marital companionship and intellectual stimulation. These “hetaerae” were intelligent, educated courtesans, some of whom exerted intellectual and political influence upon the men.11 But because of the sharp social class stratification these women were forbid den to marry citizens. In Corinth these “hetaerae” were attached to the temple of Aphrodite, where more than a thousand of them were employed as temple prostitutes.a Sexual immorality of the most lewd nature was not considered shameful. How could it be when the Greek gods were themselves engaged in shameful acts?

In Roman society women enjoyed a somewhat better standing than in Greek culture. Although a woman had no legal rights to sign a contract or will and could not act as a witness at court, she did share more in her husband’s life and was honored with the title “domina,” or “matrona.”13 Roman women were also far better educated and Seneca (AD 3–66) reveals the existence of homes where women wielded powerful influences over their husbands.14 Because of slavery women had ample leisure time to spend in keeping up with the latest fashions in clothing, hairstyles and cosmetics, and spent afternoons at the baths.15 Yet, in spite of the comparative luxury and freedom she enjoyed, the Roman woman was the living property of a husband who could lend her out at will, as Cato lent his wife to his friend Hortensius, and as Augustus took Livia from Tiberias Nero.16

This was the society into which Christianity was emerging, supplanting the immorality and the vices connected with the exploitation of women. Christianity elevated their position to one of honor and dignity.

 

III. The Writing s of the Early Church Fathers on the Role of Women

Christianity established the sanctity of the entire family, making the marriage relationship a pattern of the mystical union of Christ with His Church.17 No longer was the woman the slave of man and the tool of lust. The writings of the early Church reflect the New Testament’s teaching in regard to women’s role. Polycarp (AD 69–155), one of the Apostolic Fathers, who ended his life as a martyr, mentions the duties of wives, admonishing them to walk “in the faith given to them, and in purity tenderly loving their own husbands in all truth . . . and to train up their children in the knowledge and fear of God.”18 Ignatius (died c. AD 107) reminds “husbands, love your wives, as fellow-servants of God, as your own body, as the partners of life, and your co-adjutors in the procreation of children.”19 The Shepherd of Hermas deals with infidelity and divorce and says to men that “if you always remember your own wife, you will never sin.”20 Titian (AD 110–172) in his “Address to the Greeks” compares heathen and Christian women and writes: “all our women are chaste, and the maidens at their distaffs sing of divine things.”21 The famous Apologist Athenagorus writes in AD 177, in defense of Christianity in “A Plea for the Christians,” about the high morality of Christians. “We are so far from practising promiscuous intercourse, that it is not lawful among us to indulge even a lustful look.”22 Clement of Alexandria (AD 153–217) devotes a lot of attention to define the proper role of women, giving many instructions pertaining to her duties and conduct.23 Tertullian (AD 150–220), another Apologist, in a book dedicated to his wife writes: “How can I paint the happiness of a marriage which the church ratifies.”24

IV. The Influence of Women

1. As Wives and Mothers

It is significant how important the influences of godly women were in instilling the Christian faith in members of their family. Many of the Church Fathers attribute their faith to the influences of godly mothers. Theodoret (b. AD 300) had “an honorable and pious mother.”¹⁵ Basil the Great (b. AD 329) had both a God-fearing mother, St. Emmalia, and a God-fearing grandmother, St. Macrina,26 who also had great influence on her brother Gregory of Nyssa27 Nona, the mother of Gregory Nazianzen (b. AD 330), was one of the noblest Christian women of antiquity and by her patience in prayer wrought the conversion of both her husband and son.28 The mother of Chrysostom (b. AD 347), Anthusa, early planted in him the seed of piety. 29 Probably the most well-known mother of the Early Church is Monica, the mother of St. Augustine (b. AD 354) to whom he paid tribute in his Confessions and Letters.30

2. As Martyrs

There is no doubt that the faith and courage displayed by women as martyrs of the Church helped build their esteem and influence. Clement of Alexandria devotes a whole chapter in “The Stromata” to the fact that women as well as men are candidates for the martyr’s crown.31 The history of the Early Church is full of names of women who gave the supreme sacrifice of their lives. History records the names of Agnes, “a maiden of thirteen years,” who stedfastly confessed and was “put to the sword.”32 There is Caecilia, the legendary virgin and martyr who witnessed under Marcus Aurelius,33 and Elandina a Gallic slave who showed super-human strength under torture and was thrown to wild beasts.34 We read of Biblias of Lyon who first recanted, but later confessed. Agathonice of Pergamos rushed into the flames from the side of her young son.35 Irene, Casia, Philippia, Eutychia and Soter were noblewomen who died under the Diocletian persecution (AD 303–313). Herais, Marcella and Potamiana from Alexandria and Chionia and Agape from Thessalonica are mentioned. Quinta was stoned and Appolonia was burned during t he reign of Valerius (AD 257–261). Ammonarion, Mercuria and Dionysia died in chains. Fortunata, Credula, Hereda and Julia died in prison of starvation under the persecution of Decius (AD 250–260). Collecta, Emerita, Calpurnia, Maria and her sisters Januaria, Dativa, and Donata are honored by the Church Father Cyprian, and Quartillosia, Tertullas and Antonia died with him in AD 258. Donata, Secunda, Hestia, Januaria and Generosa are named among the twelve martyrs who died in Numidia. In AD 304 eighteen women died. Also Chrispina, Maxima, Donatilla and Secundia wore the martyr’s crown. In Persia under the reign of Sapor II, Tabula and numerous other young women died a martyr’s death. Other names are Domnia, Theonilla, Eulalia and Juletta. Vibia Perpetua (AD 203), only twenty-two years old and member of a leading family, meets a martyr’s death in Carthage in spite of the entreaties of her heathen father and being the mother of an infant. Her slave and fellow martyr, Felicitas, gave birth to a child in prison. Both of them were gored to death by a wild cow.36 The church historian Eusebius writes that emperor Licinius forbade women to worship together with men, visit places of worship and be taught by bishops.37Did he realize that much power of Christianity was with its women?

3. In Society and the State

That women were influential in bringing others to faith cannot be doubted. Even in the highest classes of society, at the emperor’s court, there were women who were Christians and had great influence. Pomponia Graecina, wife of consul Augustus Plautinus (AD 58), the conqueror of Britain, was the first high-ranking woman to be accused of the Christian faith. Two cousins of emperor Domitian (AD 81-96), Flavius Clemens and his wife Flavia Domitilla, were accused of “atheism,” that is, of Christianity. The husband was condemned to death and the wife to exile. Excavations in the catacomb of Domitilla establish that an entire branch of the Flavian family had embraced Christianity.38 During the rule of Commodus (AD 180–192) there were many Christians at the palace, including Marcia who did many favors for Christians. During the reign of Septimus Severus (AD 193–211) Christian women were prominent at the court. Even Prisca, the wife of Diocletian (AD 303–311), under whom the Christians were most severely persecuted, is reported to have been a Christian, or at least favorable to Christianity. So was Diocletian’s daughter Valeria and many others at t he palace:” Some historians believe that because of the influence of Aquila Severa upon her husband Callistus (AD 217–222) marriage laws were revised to favor women.39

The beneficial effects of Christianity upon the status of women and the family received its fullest expression under the emperor Constantine, whose conversion gave Christianity official sanction. In AD 321 be granted women the same rights as men to control their property, with the exception of landed estates. Rape of virgins and widows became punishable by death. Marriage laws making divorce more difficult and penalizing concubinage and adultery were passed. In AD 390 Theodosius I allowed the mother a certain right of guardianship formerly exclusively entrusted to men. Thus we see that the result of a wide acceptance of Christianity had influence upon t he society and the state, resulting in the legal protection of the Christian values of the family and thereby elevating the position of the woman. No doubt, it was the witness of women exhibiting the teaching of Christianity which effected these changes, because even the “heathen Libanus, the enthusiastic eulogist of old Grecian culture, pronounced an involuntary eulogy on Christianity, when he exclaimed, . . . ‘What women the Christians have!’”

1. Gen. 2:20. 2. Gal. 3:28. 3. Acts 1:13–14. 4. Acts 5:14. 5. Lydia, Priscilla, Apphia, Euodia and Syntyche appear to have been instrumental in helping to establish churches. In Romans, chapter 16, eight women are named among the twenty–six persons specifically mentioned by name as helpers in the church. 6. Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Vol. I, Apostolic Christianity, A.D.l-100, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1910; reprinted. 1978), p. 87. 7. Cf. Acts 2:10; 6:5; 10:2; 13:43, etc. 8. Rom. 1:20–32. 9. Page Smith, Daughters of the Promised Land, (Boston & Toronto: Little, Brown and Company, 1970), p. 22. 10. Charles Caldwell Ryrie, The Role of Women in the Church, (Chicago: Moody Press, 1958), pp. 2–3. 11. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1977 ed., s.v. “Women, Status of,” pp. 906–916. 12. Philip Schaff, Ibid., Vol. I, pp. 355–356. 13. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ibid., pp. 906–916. 14. E . M. White, Woman in World History, (London S.W.J: Herbert Jenkins Limited, 1924), pp. 282–3. 15 Moses Hadas, Imperial Rome, Great Ages of Man Series, (New York: Time Incorporated, 1965), p. 132. 16 Philip Schaff, Ibid., Vol. II, p. 357. 17. Eph. 5:21–6:9; cf. Acts 15:20; 1 Cor. 6:13–30; Gal. 5:19; Col. 1:21; 3:5; etc. 18. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, ed., The Ante–Nicene Fathers, vol. I , The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1867; reprinted. 1977), p. 34. 19. Ibid., p. 81. 20. Ibid., vol. II, Hermas, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Clement of Alexandria, p. 21. 21 Ibid., p. 79. 22 Ibid., p. 146. 23 Ibid., pp. 283–291; pp. 431–433. It would be very instructive and interesting to quote Clement extensively on his views on women’s fashions in dress, hairstyles, make-up, exercise, behavior in church, and other matters. 24 Philip Schaff, Ibid., Vo. II, pp. 364–5. 25 Ibid., p. 881. 26 Ibid., p. 894. 27 Ibid., pp. 905–6. 28 Ibid., pp. 909–911. 29 Ibid., p. 938. 30 The Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. I, pp. 50–138. 31 Ante–Nicene Fathers, Vol. II, pp. 491–421. 32 Philip Schaff, Ibid., Vol. II, p. 70. 33 Philip Carrington, The Early Christian Church, Vol. I, The First Christian Century, (Cambridge: University Press, 1957), p. 299. 34 Philip Schaff, Ibid., Vol. II, p. 52. 35 Philip Carrington, Ibid., Vol. II, The Second Century, p. 191. 36 Philip Carrington, Ibid., Vol. II, pp. 425-7. 37 Ibid., pp. 95–97. 38 Philip Schaff, Vol. I, pp. 374–5. 39 Ibid., Vol. II, p. 65. 40 C. Gerlings, De Vrouw in het Oud-Christelijke Gemeent.eleven, (Amsterdam: A. H. Kruyt , n.d.), pp. 90–91.